History of Russia, from prehistoric times to the present, has always been the history of pioneering and colonization in search of new frontiers .
And this cultivation has been carried out along large and small rivers. Therefore, in the history of Russia, the role of rivers was extremely large.
However, most of the estuary was occupied by other peoples . As a result, Russia has fought with neighboring peoples for many years in search of an "exit to the sea."
The stage of Russian history was also the unobstructed Great Plains of Eurasia. From the steppe zone in the south, nomadic nomads were constantly attacking, and from the west and north, the great powers of Europe invaded.
From the invasion of Mongolia in the 13th century to the attack of Nazi Germany in World War II, Russia has endured and rejected its enemies, suffering from repeated foreign aggression .
This Russia ingested Greek Orthodox Church (Russian Orthodox Church) from the Byzantine Empire at the end of the 10th century , which was under the control of Mongolia and supported the hearts of Russians.
On the other hand, however, the tradition of church subordination to the state in the Byzantine world was also incorporated into Russia.
Russia's tyranny was further strengthened during the times of Ivan the Terrible and Peter the Great. Peter the Great won the Great Northern War and was given the title of " Emperor " by the Senate, from which time Russia became the " Russian Empire ".
From then on, until the revolution of 1917 , tyranny and serfdom were the two pillars of this empire, suppressing domestic democratic ideas and revolutionary movements, and promoting imperialist policies externally.
After the revolution, the Soviet Union has made a new history. In 74 years since the establishment of the revolution, the Stalin system, which can be said to be the aftereffect of the revolution, and the process of overcoming it, the first.
"socialism" construction of human society has become a global issue such as democracy, modernization, and ethnic issues.
I searched for the answer to the above and finished the experiment while proposing a new response. In 1991, the Soviet Union collapsed , and the new Russia returned to a capital-based society dominated by the market system with full-blown wounds, and entered a new era.
The history up to the Russian Revolution, which has the above characteristics , can be divided into periods as follows.
(1) Kiev -Russia era (9th-13th centuries) The era when the East Slavs formed several principalities centered on the Kievan Rus'.
(2) " Tatar yoke" era (c. 1240 to 1480) The era when the chiefdoms of Kiev and Russia were destroyed by the invasion of the Mongolians and placed under the control of Kipchak Han .
(3) Moscow -Russia era (15th to 17th centuries) An era in which Russia, which has escaped from the "Tatar yoke", unifies the entire country centered on the Grand Duchy of Moscow and establishes a monopoly and a serfdom .
(4) Establishment and development of the Russian Empire (18th-19th century) After the reform of Peter the Great, the absolute political and economic system was further strengthened, and the world politics as a military power after winning the Napoleonic Wars. The era that appears in.
(5) Era of reform and reaction (late 19th century to early 20th century) A series of reforms beginning with the liberation of serfs and the subsequent reaction period.
(6) Age of War and Revolution After the Russo-Japanese War and the 1905 Revolution, the Romanov dynasty collapsed due to the February Revolution of 1917 under World War I , and the October Revolution made it the first socialist country in history. The era of becoming.
(7) Establishment and dismantling of the Soviet Union , a socialist country .
(8) The birth of new Russia and the era of ethnic problems.
In this paper, the Russian calendar (Julian calendar, revised to the current Christian era in 1918) is used.
To convert this to the Christian era, add 12 days in the 19th century and 13 days in the 20th century.
Russia from ancient to 11th century
Was also a non-Slavic nomad. The first stage of Russian history was the northern coast of the Black Sea and the step zone behind it, but a Greek colonial city was already built on the Black Sea coast around the 7th century BC and visited this area in the 5th century BC.
The historian Herodotus describes the Scythians who live in Step. However, they were replaced by Sarmatians, the same Iranian nomad
from Central Asia in the 3rd century BC. After that, the Goat, Hung, Abar, and Khazar tribes ruled the region one after another.
The East Slavs, who later became known as the Great Russians, Ukrainians , and Belarusians (White Russia), had already lived in southern and central Russia since the Scythian era and paid Hazars fur and other taxes as taxes.
The Khazars built a mighty country from the lower Volga River to the Caucasus in the 7th and 11th centuries and prospered in commerce, but after being defeated by the Principality of Kyiv's army in the latter half of the 10th century, they began to decline.
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The legend of the founding of "Rus'"
"Russia" was used as the name of the country only from the end of the 15th century, until then it was simply called "Rus" or the land of Rus. The name "Rus'" first appears in the "Primitive Chronicles" created in the 12th century.
According to it, the tribes of the East Slavs fought against each other, and justice did not rule, so they went to Ruthen beyond the sea and said, "Our land is vast and abundant, but in it. There is no order. Come and reign publicly and rule us. "
In response to this invitation, all three Wariyag (Norman) brothers from the Scandinavian Peninsula were brought in by the tribe, and their eldest brother, Rurik , settled in Novgorod .
When Rurik died, his child Igor was still small, so his clan Oleg took charge of the affairs and came to Kyiv from Novgorod with Igor in 882, where the foundation of Kyiv Russia was laid. It is said that.
However, many Russian scholars denied the theory that such Normans built the first Russian country (Norman theory), and Kyiv Russia was called by the East Slavic tribes long before their arrival. It claims to have been built over many years.
Kyiv Russia and its society
Vladimir I of Kiev Russia (c. 980-1015) took the sister of the Byzantine emperor in 988 and introduced the Greek Orthodox Church, which became the state religion . Kyiv Russia reached its peak during the time of its son Yaroslav I (reigning 1019-1054), but its version is centered on the Doniepur River basin, from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Black Sea in the south, and the Oka River in the east. From to the west, it extended to the Calpatia Mountains.
Kiev Russia consists of several principalities, centered on the Great Principality of Kiev, with aristocrats , commoners, and slaves under the public. The aristocrats had a meeting called Duma , but there was also a private assembly called Beche .
This had the right of all free citizens to participate. There was this Beche in every town in Kyiv Russia, but the most famous of them are the Beche in Kyiv and Novgorod.
Kiev Russia experiences 80 internal disturbances in 170 years after the death of Yaroslav I. At one point, it was about to be reunited during the time of Vladimir Monomuff (reigning 1113 to 1125), but after his death the civil war began again and the Grand Duke was transferred from Kyiv to Vladimir.
During such a civil war, Steppe nomads, including the Pechenegs, repeatedly attacked Kyiv Russia. And the invasion of Mongolians in the early 13th century marked the last stop on this declining Kyiv Russia.
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Mongolian invasion
In 1235, Mongolia decided to advance its conquest army in three directions: China, Persia and Russia, and Genghis Khan's grandson Batu (1207-1255) was appointed as the head of the Russian expeditionary force.
The following year, in 1236, he led a large army into Russia, destroying and looting towns one after another, and in 1240 he fell into Kiev.
He then invaded Poland and Hungary , threatening Western Europe, but returned to his army when he was informed of the death of Ogedei Khan (1241) from his home country.
On his way home, Batu built Kipchak Khan (Khan), whose capital is Sarai on the lower Volga River. Batu entrusted Russian rule to the Russian princes who cooperated with him in order to rule this vast Kipchak Khan, but these princes were forced into full obedience to the Khan. ..
In this way Mongolia ruled Russia for 240 years from around 1240, which is called the "Tatar yoke" in Russian history. Tatars are descendants of Turkish inhabitants who have followed the Mongolian army , after which the Mongolians were mixed with the Tatars and made their religion Islam their national religion.
Battle on the Neva River and "Battle on the Ice"
On the other hand, Russia at the time of the invasion of Mongolia was also threatened by foreign enemies from the north and west .
This is because the Catholic Swedish and Teutonic Knights attempted to attack Orthodox Russia in the wake of the invasion of Mongolia.
In 1240, the Swedish fleet suddenly went up the Neva River to capture Novgorod. Upon receiving this news, Alexandre of Novgorod (reigning 1236-1251) led his army into a raid and annihilated the Swedish army. This achievement made him known as " Alexander Nevsky "
Modernization and enlightened absolutism from above
Russia's modernization began in the era of Peter the Great (Emperor, 1682-1725), but his lifelong efforts were to modernize Russia, which was behind the Western European nations.
Was that. Therefore, he implemented a forcible modernization policy by the state power aiming at the wealthy soldiers.
Catherine the Great (reigned 1762-1796) in the latter half of the 18th century basically inherited such a policy of Peter the Great, and established the so-called Eastern European absolute principle with tyranny and serfdom as the two pillars. Aimed at.
Most of Peter the Great's reign was devoted to war, but the Great Northern War (1700-1721) with Sweden was particularly long for 22 years.
During the war, he built a new capital, Petersburg ( St. Petersburg ), at the mouth of the Neva River, which flows into the Gulf of Finland .
Peter the Great, who won the Great Northern War, was given the title of "Emperor" by the Senate, and Russia became the "Russian Empire" thereafter. He introduced various systems from the developed nations of Western Europe to modernize Russia, but used political police to suppress those who opposed them.
Six tsars took the throne in Russia during the 37 years from Peter the Great to Catherine the Great, but all were mediocre, and politics was exclusively carried out by favorite and aides .
However, Catherine II, who defeated her husband Peter III (reigning 1761 to 1762) and took the throne, became the only female emperor to be called the "Great Emperor."
In the first half of her reign, she undertook several reforms worthy of being called an enlightenment tyranny.
She also, on her diplomatic side, she fought against Crimean Tatars to annex Crimean Khanate, and she fought twice against the Ottoman Empire to win "New Russia". She also conspired with Prussia and Austria to divide Poland (1st, 1772), making the eastern half Russian territory.
Russia's serfdom was put in place under Catherine the Great, and the landowner's aristocratic control over the peasants was strengthened. In response, a large-scale peasant rebellion (1773-1775) led by Pugachev broke out, and the government was finally able to put it down over a full year (Pugachev's Rebellion).
Alexander I and Napoleon I
I got to the place of. He set up a committee to consider reforms with liberal aides and appointed Speransky to draft a constitution, all without bearing fruit for the fight against Napoleon I. finished.
In 1805, Russia, in association with Austria, fought against Napoleon's army at the Battle of Austerlitz and suffered a great defeat.
Two years later, after being defeated by the French again in Friedland, Alexander I was forced to conclude a humiliating Treaties of Tilsit (1807) against Napoleon I.
Later, in Russia, dissatisfaction with Napoleon I's blockade of the continent increased, and relations between Russia and France deteriorated.
In 1812, Napoleon I led a large army of about 640,000 on an expedition to Moscow, and entered Moscow after the Battle of Borodino.
However, Alexander I refused Napoleon I's three peace offers, and Napoleon's army was forced to withdraw before the approaching Russian winter.
At the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) held after the fall of Napoleon I, Alexander I played the leading role and advocated the "Holy Alliance",
claiming that it would establish divine peace in Europe. But when it comes to domestic affairs, he no longer has the same passion he had before.
Decembrist revolt
The sudden death of Alexander I on his travels in 1825 caused confusion over the succession of the throne .
Eventually, his second younger brother, Nikolai, took the throne, and in December of the same year, by convention, the entire army of the capital gathered at Senate Square to pledge allegiance to the new tsar.
At this time, about 3,000 soldiers refused to take the oath and showed a rebellious stance. Most of their leaders are officers of Konoe, who have participated in the Napoleonic Wars, and have formed secret societies for Russia's reforms since 1816.
They all believed that tyranny and serfdom should be abolished in the first place in order to remodel their homeland, which lags behind Western European countries.
Eventually, the rebellion was subdued by the armed forces of the new Emperor Nicholas I (reigning 1825-1855), with five masterminds hanged and more than 120 Siberian exiles ( Decabrist revolt ).
However , the first public armed uprising attempt against tyranny remained in people's memory for a long time and pioneered the subsequent revolutionary movement.
The 30-year reign of Nicholas I from 1825 to 1855 was the darkest time in Russia in the 19th century. He set up the "Third Section of His Imperial Majesty," which doubles as a secret police and military police, to crack down on all dangerous thoughts.
He also sent troops not only domestically, but also to Hungary in 1849, cracking down on the country's revolution by force and fearing "European gendarmerie.
However, despite this government's oppressive policy, from the end of the 1830s to the end of the 1840s, Russia's ideological world was more active than ever, and the Slavophiles represented by Homyakoff and Kireyevsky.
A spectacular debate over Russia's past and future was fought between the Slavophiles and Zapadniki (Western Europeans) represented by Belinsky and Herzen . In addition, Pushkin, Gogol, Lermontov, etc. appeared in literature, and the golden age was reached.
Emancipation reform and reforms
Russia was defeated in the Crimean War (1853-1856) against the Ottoman-Turkish Empire and its backing Britain and France for three years from 1853 .
Some of Russia's ruling classes, including Emperor Alexander II (reigned 1855-1881), who reigned the year before the defeat, said that the cause of this defeat was not merely military,
but the weakness of Russia's industrial power. , I thought that it was behind the modernization, such as inadequate railway and road network.
In 1861, the Emancipation Reform Order was promulgated. Then, for the reform of local administration, a local residents' association called Zemstvo was established, and in 1864,
the judicial and lay judge system was also reformed. Reforms were also carried out in terms of military system, national finance, education, etc., and Russian society gradually changed toward modernization.
Bu Narod movement
However, there have been opposition in society to such governmental modernization from above. It was not only the conservative landowner aristocrats, but also the peasants who were dissatisfied with the content of the Emancipation Reform, and a young intelligentsia who sympathized with them and aimed at the overall transformation of Russian society.
Immediately after the promulgation of the Emancipation Reform, there was a peasant riot in various places, but the government suppressed it by force.
Herzen, who was in exile in London at the time, uncovered the deception of the Emancipation Reform of Farmers and urged young people to enter rural areas for enlightenment and publicity activities.
In response to such a call, not a few young people formed secret societies and gradually leaned toward radical actions. They were called Narodniks (populists).
The Bu Narod movement, a young man and woman trying to get into the people and promote the revolution, culminated in the summer of 1874.
However, most of the farmers did not respond to such a call, and the movement was unsuccessful. Later, some of the most radical young people adopted terrorist tactics. In 1881 Alexander II was assassinated by such a youth secret society "Narodnaya Volya".
Reactionary policy and industrialization from above
Under this emperor, the government improved Zemstvo, the judiciary, and the education system, while at the same time increasing discrimination against ethnic minorities such as Jews .
On the other hand, under the guidance of Finance Minister Whitte, the government exported raw materials such as grains to earn foreign currency and introduced foreign capital to foster industry.
As a result, Russia in the 1890s achieved unprecedented economic growth. However, public dissatisfaction with the government increased because such growth was at the expense of farmers and workers .
Russia-France Alliance and Expansion to the East
After the defeat of the Crimean War, Russia first approached France, but after the Prussian-French War (1870-1871), in line with Bismarck's policy of isolating France, in 1873 he teamed up with Germany and Austria to form the League of the Three Emperors.
tied. After this Russia fought the Ottoman Empire for the liberation of the Slavs on the Balkan Peninsula .
Russia, which won the Russia-Turkey War (1877-1878), seemed to have gained a sphere of influence in Balkan under the Treaty of San Stefano, but was afraid that Russia would dominate Balkan and the Near East.
Bismarck held the Congress of Berlin (1878) to put an end to Russia's advance. After that, Russia approached France again and signed the "Russia-France Alliance" in 1894 against the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria and Italy.
On the other hand, Russia often sent expeditionary forces to Central Asia to protect Bukhara Han and Khanate of Khiva, and annexed Kokand Han.
It also advanced to the Far East and signed the 1858 Treaty of Aigun with the Qing dynasty to acquire territory north of the Amur River.
Two years later, the Beijing Treaty also obtained Primorsky Krai (currently Primorsky Krai) east of the Ussuri River, and built a good port of Vladivostok here.
In addition, the Treaty of Shimoda between Japan and Russia was signed with Japan in 1855, and the Kuril Islands north of Urup Island were brought to Japan by the 1875 Treaty of St. Petersburg and Karafuto. Instead of transferring, he acquired the sovereignty of Sakhalin, which had been a joint territory of Japan and Russia.
Russo-Japanese War and the 1905 Revolution
Relations between Russia and Japan have worsened since Russia's "Triple Intervention" with the Japanese government in 1895.
Later, during the Yoshiwadan incident, Russia sent a large army to Manchuria (currently the northeastern region of China) and did not withdraw after the incident.
Formed an alliance and tried to counter Russia. Thus, in 1904, a war ended between the two countries over control over Manchuria and Korea (Russo-Japanese War).
On Sunday, January 9, 1905, the day after the Russo-Japanese War began, more than 150,000 people in the capital, Peterburg, demonstrated to directly petition the emperor to improve their lives and stop the war.
In response, the government responded with military fire, resulting in many casualties. The news of this "Blood Sunday" incident was immediately transmitted nationwide, and protest strikes occurred in various places, from which the "Soviet" was spontaneously born as a representative organization for workers.
After the defeat of the Russo-Japanese War in September of the same year, a general strike involving 2 million workers occurred in October, completely paralyzing all Russian industries . At this point, Nicholas II (reigned 1894-1917) unavoidably promulgated the "October Manifesto", promising to give civil liberties and to establish the Diet.
However, the city-wide Soviet Union in Peterburg rejected the October Declaration and resolved an indefinite strike, but it was crushed by the government and the armed uprising of Moscow workers was also suppressed by the army.
World War I and the collapse of the Empire
In 1914, when World War I broke out, Russia, along with France and Great Britain, began a war against allies of Germany and Austria in July of the same year (8 AD) as a member of the Allies.
However, as the war prolonged, the mood of war was widespread both on the front line and after the home front, and in the fall of 1916, 60,000 workers in the capital Petrograd (now St. Petersburg) went on strike.
The following day, on February 23, 1917, on International Women's Day, a female worker in the city held a "bread yokose demonstration," which triggered a wave of strikes to cover the entire city on the 25th. After this, soldiers rebelled, killing officers and releasing political prisoners.
On the other hand, workers formed the Workers Soviet Extraordinary Committee, and soldiers joined it, and the organization called "Workers / Soldiers Soviet", which plays a decisive role in the revolution, was born.
At the same time, an extraordinary committee was formed in the Diet, and in Petrograd there was a dual power situation between the Soviet workers and soldiers and the Provisional Committee of the State.
Faced with this, Nicholas II tried to transfer his throne to his younger brother, Grand Duke Michael Alexandre, but the Romanovs finally collapsed as he refused to do so (February Revolution).
October Revolution
After the abdication of Nicholas II, the Provisional Committee of the State Council organized a caretaker government. Meanwhile, Lenin , who returned from exile in Switzerland in a hurry , announced "April Theses" and called for support for the Soviet Union without cooperating with the caretaker government.
The caretaker government's policy of continuing the war increased public dissatisfaction, with workers and soldiers demonstrating a large armed demonstration in July 1917, when the government finally recalled the cavalry division from the front lines to suppress it.
Later, Kerensky of the Socialist Revolutionary Party formed a coalition government (second) consisting of socialists and liberals, and appointed Kornilov as commander-in-chief.
However, Kornilov rebelled in an attempt to seize full power, and Kerensky was finally able to suppress it. On October 10, Lenin, who had been in exile in Finland since July, secretly returned to the capital. Meanwhile, the Petrograd Soviet established the Military Revolutionary Commission on October 16 and chose Trotsky as its chairman.
The Commission immediately appointed a political commissar to the entire corps, taking full control of the army and deciding to schedule an armed uprising on October 25. On the evening of October 24, about 6,000 Bolshevik troops uprised and occupied key points of the operation with little resistance.
The following night, on the night of the 25th, a winter palace attack was launched with the signal of an air cannon from the cruiser Aurora on the Neva River, and in just a few hours the government troops were wiped out and the government ministers who stood there were arrested.
On the 26th, the Bolsheviks took power, and the Russian Revolution was established here (October Revolution). However, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, some historians called this "revolution" a " coup ".There are many things to review.
Establishment of Soviet Union
War communism
The Bolsheviks, who overthrew the caretaker government in the October Revolution, established the world's first socialist government, the labor and agriculture government, in partnership with the SR (Social Revolutionary Party) left.
Lenin was appointed as the leader, Trotsky was appointed as the Foreign People's Commissariat, and Stalin was appointed as the People's Commissariat for Ethnic Affairs.
Following its long-held promise, the new administration held the first free universal suffrage in history to convene a constitutional council, with Suel being the first party and the Bolsheviks gaining only 23%. rice field. Lenin used force to disband it after the Constitutional Assembly rejected the declaration proposed by the new administration .
Immediately after this, the labor and agriculture government held the 3rd Russian Soviet Congress to adopt the "Declaration of the Rights of the Workers Exploited People" and declared the establishment of the Russian Soviet Socialist Republic.
Opposition to the new administration came not only from landowners, aristocrats, bourgeoisies, and military personnel who supported the old regime, but also from the Mensheviks and the right-wing Suel.
The new government created an organization called " Chekah " (emergency committee) to crack down on these dissidents and cracked down on them. This is the predecessor of the later secret police "Gee Pee Wu ".
The challenge for the new administration was how to feed workers in cities such as Moscow and Petrograd .
The government promulgated a "food dictatorship" in an attempt to monopolize grain by the state, and set up a poor farming committee in rural areas to forcibly collect food.
From the middle of 1918, the government implemented an emergency measure called "war communism" to fight not only the White Guard (counter-revolutionary army) and foreign interfering forces, but also farmers who refused to provide food .
In July 1918, the Suel left wing rebelled and broomed, but Cheker suppressed it. This incident put the government entirely under the control of the Bolsheviks, establishing a one-party dictatorship since then. In August, Lenin was nearly assassinated, but from that point on, the government carried out a "red terror" and eliminated opposition. Nicholas II and his family were also executed.
In addition to supporters of the old system such as landowners, aristocrats, military personnel, and Cossacks, the Bolsheviki administration also includes foreign interfering forces such as Britain, the United States, France, and Japan, ethnic minorities who insist on independence, and farmers who refuse to sprinkle food.
I had to fight. To that end, Germany's total war system during World War I was used as a model, and all political and economic powers were concentrated in the center.
Such a political system immediately after the revolution, which was adopted as a temporary measure, including Cheker, laid the foundation for the subsequent Soviet regime.
Establishment and disappearance of national government
The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918 caused Russia to lose 26% of its population and 27% of its territory. Finland, Poland, the Baltic States and Ukraine , which had been incorporated into the Russian Empire until then, became independent.
The nationalist parties of Zakafkas declared the independence of the Federal Republic of Zakafkas in April 1918, but soon they were divided into three republics : Georgia (Georgia), Armenia and Azerbaijan .
However, after the withdrawal of the British Interfering Army, a socialist government was formed by the Soviet Army, and in December 1922, the Soviet Union (Soviet Union) was established by the four countries of Russia,
Ukraine, White Russia, and Zakafkas. In Central Asia, the Turkestan Autonomous Republic was created in April 1918, but the resistance movement of the Muslim peasant anti-Soviet riot organization Basmachi (basmaci means "hizoku, assaulter") against the Bolsheviki administration It lasted until the end of the 1920s. In Central Asia,
where there are many Muslim nomads, five republics were created between 1924 and 1936, becoming members of the Soviet Union.
Many Muslims lived in imperial Russia, but their main settlements were in Central Asia, the Volga River, the Caucasus Mountains, and the Crimean region.
The Tatars and Bashkirs on the Volga River wanted to become one country, but in 1919 they were divided into the Tatar Autonomous Republic and the Bashkir Autonomous Republic.
The newly formed Soviet Union was theoretically an alliance between the Russian Federation and its equivalent republics, and the autonomous republics or autonomous regions and autonomous states voluntarily joining the Russian Federation.
However, this was just a matter of fact, and was imposed by the Bolshevik administration. And the withdrawal of each republic from the federation was actually impossible.